3 Memory Systems

n Sensory memory – brief lasting of the sensory image in our sensory register

n Short-term or working memory (STM)-holds information we are actively thinking about; limited in capacity (~ 7 items) & duration

n Long-term memory (LTM) – items encoded into LTM are held almost permanently; virtually unlimited capacity

3 Memory Processes

n Encoding (mentally processing information so it can be placed into memory).

n Storage (holding that information for a period of time)

n Retrieval (accessing or recalling stored memories when needed)

Encoding

n Sensory input is not sufficient – must attend to & process that input

n Some encoding occurs automatically-

n Personal experiences

n Information of high interest

n Some types of learning (conditioning, motor learning)

n Much encoding, however, is effortful; it requires special thought and practice

3 Primary Types of Long-Term Memories

n Episodic Memories (life experiences)

n Semantic Memories (information/knowledge)

n Procedural Memories (how to do things)

n The Network Theory of Memory

Most Common Amnesia:
Retrograde Amnesia

n Head trauma or other temporary disruption of normal brain functioning blocks memories that are in the process of being transferred to LTM (typically memories for events immediately PRECEDING the trauma/disruption

Retrograde vs. Anterograde Loss

Anterograde Amnesia:
The Case of H.M.

n H.M. suffered uncontrolled seizures in his hippocampus/temporal lobe cortex

n This region was removed in the 60’s to try to control his seizures (and it did)

n Since the removal, H.M. has been unable to store new declarative (episodic and semantic memories)

n But he has learned new motor skills (procedural memories)

Memory Areas of Brain

n Hippocampus – transferring episodic & semantic memories into LTM

n Cerebral cortex – STM and also final storage place for visual, auditory, tactile memories

n Amygdala – emotional aspects of memory

n Cerebellum – nondeclarative memories (procedural memories, conditioning memories)

Rehearsal

n We usually use maintenance rehearsal (repeating things over & over) to hold information in STM

n Maintenance rehearsal is not terribly effective for encoding LTMs however.

n Elaborative rehearsal (organizing, thinking about, practicing, and linking new material to existing memories). The more associations we build, the more cues we’ll have for retrieval.

n The more deeply you process info, the better your recall

Serial Position Effect

n All items in a list are not equally easy to recall. Its easier to remember the beginning (“primacy effect”) & the end (“recency effect”). The middle is most likely to give us difficulty.

Levels of Processing Model

n Depth of processing is key to how effectively a memory is stored and retrieved

Other Factors Affecting Recall

n Order of Material to be Recalled

n How the Memories are Elicited

n Emotionality of Memories

n Most often emotion & the hormones produced strengthen memories

n Example: flashbulb memories

Recall vs Recognition Tests

n Recall tests (e.g. essays) demand that you retrieve the memories without many external cues

n Recognition tests (e.g. multiple choice) – alternatives provide some cues

Influences on Cues & Recall

n Multiple experiences with the same material

n Integration with established memories

n Context while storing material

n State and mood while storing material

n “State-dependent memory”

n Beware of cue confusion (interference)

n Proactive interference

n Retroactive interference

Some Reasons for “Forgetting”

n Encoding failure (didn’t pay attention)

n Insufficient cues to retrieve stored memory

n TOT phenomenon

n Cue Confusion or Interference

n Proactive interfererence

n Older memories interfere with new recall

n Retroactive interference

n Newer memories interfere with old recall

n Context cues change – State dependent learning

Nature of Memory

n Subject to change - not a fixed permanent record

n Reconstructed in pieces

n Depends on our attention, expectations, past experiences, how we’re questioned

n Since memory is malleable, always question its accuracy.

n Accuracy of memory is weakly correlated with confidence – can be very confident and still be wrong!

Elizabeth Loftus

n Eyewitness witness research

n Because of the reconstructive nature of memory we can have inaccurate memories or even completely false memories.

Improve Your Memory

n Study repeatedly (distributed practice or spacing effect); aim for “overlearning”

n Avoid or limit interference

n Remember that context and personal state can be memory cues (“state-dependent” learning)

n Test your recall as well as recognition.

Improve Your Memory

n Don’t rely on mindless re-reading as a rehearsal technique; do something elaborative

n Actively work with, think about, and be sure you understand the meaning of material

n Test yourself & study your mistakes

n Organize material (outlines, lists of characteristics, parallel comparisons, diagram, etc)

n Establish memory cues (mnemonic devices are 1 possibility), sometimes imagery can be useful